Introduction, Important Definitions and Related Concepts:
An umbrella term is a word that provides a
superset or
grouping of related concepts, also called a
hypernym. For example,
cryptology is an
umbrella
term that encompasses
cryptography and
cryptanalysis, among other fields. Similarly, an "umbrella
organization" can be an organization which is a central and coordinating
body representing a number of smaller, separate bodies. A
set S1
is a superset of another set S2 if every element in S2 is
in S1. S1 may have elements which are not in S2.
Grouping is form of hierarchical knowledge representation, similar to
mind mapping,
concept
mapping and
argument mapping, all of which need to observe at least some of the
principles of grouping. The principles of grouping include
MECE (mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive),
levels of abstraction and
horizontal and vertical congruence. In
linguistics, a hyponym is a
word or
phrase whose
semantic
range is included within that of another word. For example, scarlet,
vermilion, carmine, and crimson are all hyponyms of red
(their hypernym),
which is, in turn, a hyponym of colour. According to Fromkin and Rodman,[1]
hyponyms are a set of related words whose meaning are specific instances of a
more general word (so, for example, red, white, blue, etc.,
are hyponyms of colour). Hyponymy is thus the relationship between
a general term such as polygon and specific instances of it, such as
triangle.
Computer science often terms this relationship an
is-a relationship.
For example, Red is a colour can be used to describe the hyponymic
relationship between red and colour. The term Hypernym
denotes a word, usually somewhat vague and broad in meaning, that other more
specific words fall under or are fairly encompassed by. For example, vehicle
denotes all the things that are separately denoted by the words train, chariot,
dogsled,
airplane, and automobile
and is therefore a hypernym of each of those words. Conversely, the words
train, chariot etc. are
hyponyms of vehicle. Hypernymy is the
semantic
relation in which one word is the hypernym of another. Hypernymy, the
relation words stand in when their extensions stand in the relation of class to
subclass, should not be confused with
holonymy
which is the relation words stand in when the things that they denote stand in
the relation of whole to part. A similar warning applies to
hyponymy and
meronymy. Science
concerned with data
communication and storage in secure and usually secret form. It encompasses
both cryptography and cryptanalysis. Cryptography (or
cryptology; derived from
Greek κρύπτω krýpto "hidden" and the verb γράφω gráfo "to
write" or λέγειν legein "to speak")[1]
is the practice and study of hiding information. In modern times, cryptography
is considered to be a branch of both
mathematics and
computer science, and is affiliated closely with
information theory,
computer security, and
engineering. Cryptography is used in applications present in technologically
advanced societies; examples include the security of
ATM cards,
computer passwords, and
electronic commerce, which all depend on cryptography. Cryptanalysis
(from the
Greekkryptós, "hidden", and analýein, "to loosen" or "to
untie") is the study of methods for obtaining the meaning of
encrypted information, without access to the
secret information which is normally required to do so. Typically, this
involves finding a
secret key. In non-technical language, this is the practice of
codebreaking or cracking the code, although these phrases also have a
specialised technical meaning (see
code). "Cryptanalysis" is also used to refer to any attempt to circumvent
the security of other types of
cryptographicalgorithms
and
protocols in general, and not just
encryption.
However, cryptanalysis usually excludes methods of attack that do not primarily
target weaknesses in the actual
cryptography, such as
bribery,
physical coercion,
burglary,
keystroke logging, and
social engineering, although these types of attack are an important concern
and are often more effective than traditional cryptanalysis. Even though the
goal has been the same, the methods and techniques of cryptanalysis have changed
drastically through the history of cryptography, adapting to increasing
cryptographic complexity, ranging from the pen-and-paper methods of the past,
through machines like
Enigma in
World
War II, to the computer-based schemes of the present. The results of
cryptanalysis have also changed — it is no longer possible to have unlimited
success in codebreaking, and there is a hierarchical classification of what
constitutes a rare practical attack. In the mid-1970s, a new class of
cryptography was introduced:
asymmetric cryptography. Methods for breaking these
cryptosystems are typically radically different from before, and usually
involve solving carefully-constructed problems in
pure mathematics, the best-known being
integer factorization. An umbrella or parasol (sometimes
colloquially, gamp, brolly, or bumbershoot) is a canopy
designed to protect against
precipitation or sunlight. The term parasol usually refers to an item
designed to protect from the sun, and umbrella refers to a device more
suited to protect from rain. Often the difference is the material; some parasols
are not waterproof. Parasols are often meant to be fixed to one point and often
used with
patio tables or other
outdoor furniture, or on the
beach for shelter
from the sun. Umbrellas are almost exclusively hand-held portable devices;
however, parasols can also be hand-held. The word umbrella is from the
Latin word
umbra, which in turn derives from the
Ancient Greekómvros (όμβρος). Its meaning is shade or shadow.
Brolly is a slang
word for umbrella, used often in
Britain,
New
Zealand and
Australia.
Bumbershoot is a fanciful
Americanism from the late 19th century[2].
An organization (or organisation — see
spelling differences) is a social arrangement which pursues collective
goals, which controls its own performance, and which has a boundary separating
it from its environment. The word itself is derived from the Greek word
ὄργανον (organon) meaning tool. The term is used in both daily and
scientific English in multiple ways. In the social sciences, organizations are
studied by researchers from several disciplines, the most common of which are
sociology,
economics,
political science,
psychology,
management,
and
organizational communication. The broad area is commonly referred to as
organizational studies,
organizational behavior or organization analysis. Therefore, a number of
different theories and perspectives exist, some of which are compatible, and
others that are competing. Organization – process-related: an entity is being
(re-)organized (organization as task or action). Organization – functional:
organization as a function of how entities like businesses or state authorities
are used (organization as a permanent structure). Organization –
institutional: an entity is an organization (organization as an actual
purposeful structure within a social context). A set is a collection of
distinct objects considered as a whole. Sets are one of the most fundamental
concepts in
mathematics. The study of the structure of sets,
set theory,
is rich and ongoing. Having only been invented at the end of the
19th
century, set theory is now a ubiquitous part of
mathematics education, being introduced from
primary school in many countries.[citation
needed] Set theory can be viewed as a foundation from which
nearly all of mathematics can be derived. In
philosophy,
sets are ordinarily considered to be
abstract objects[1][2][3][4]
the physical
tokens of which are, for instance; three cups on a table when spoken of
together as "the cups", or the chalk lines on a board in the form of the
opening and closing curly bracket
symbols along
with any other symbols in between the two bracket symbols. However, proponents
of
mathematical realism including
Penelope Maddy have argued that sets are
concrete objects. Mind collectively refers to the aspects of
intellect and
consciousness manifested as combinations of
thought,
perception,
memory,
emotion,
will and
imagination; mind is the stream of consciousness. It includes all of the
brain's conscious processes. This denotation sometimes includes, in certain
contexts, the working of the human
unconscious or the conscious thoughts of animals. "Mind" is often used to
refer especially to the thought processes of
reason. There
are many theories of the mind and its function. The earliest recorded works on
the mind are by
Zarathushtra,
the
Buddha, Plato,
Aristotle,
Adi
Shankara and other ancient
Greek,
Indian and
Islamic philosophers. Pre-scientific theories, based in
theology,
concentrated on the relationship between the mind and the
soul, the
supernatural,
divine or god-given essence of the person. Modern theories, based on
scientific understanding of the brain, theorise that the mind is a phenomenon of
the brain and is synonymous with
consciousness. The question of which human attributes make up the mind is
also much debated. Some argue that only the "higher" intellectual functions
constitute mind: particularly
reason and
memory. In this
view the emotions -
love,
hate,
fear,
joy - are more
"primitive" or subjective in nature and should be seen as different from the
mind. Others argue that the rational and the emotional sides of the human person
cannot be separated, that they are of the same nature and origin, and that they
should all be considered as part of the individual mind. In popular usage
mind is frequently synonymous with thought: It is that private
conversation with ourselves that we carry on "inside our heads." Thus we "make
up our minds," "change our minds" or are "of two minds" about something. One of
the key attributes of the mind in this sense is that it is a private sphere to
which no one but the owner has access. No-one else can "know our mind." They can
only know what we communicate. Brain mapping is a set of neuroscience
techniques predicated on the
mapping of
(biological) quantities or properties onto spatial representations of the (human
or non-human) brain resulting in
maps. All
neuroimaging can be considered part of brain mapping. Brain mapping can be
conceived as a higher form of
neuroimaging, producing brain images supplemented by the result of
additional (imaging or non-imaging) data processing or analysis, such as maps
projecting (measures of) behaviour onto brain regions (see
fMRI).
Brain Mapping techniques are constantly evolving, and rely on the development
and refinement of image acquisition, representation, analysis,
visualization and interpretation techniques. Functional and structural
neuroimaging are at the core of the
mapping
aspect of Brain Mapping. As the term is used in mainstream
cognitive science and
philosophy of mind, a concept or conception is an
abstractidea or a mental
symbol,
typically associated with a corresponding
representation in a
language or
symbology.
In logic, an
argument is a set
of one or more
declarative sentences known as the
premises
(singular is also spelt "premiss" in British English), along with another
declarative sentence known as the conclusion. A deductive argument asserts that
the truth of the
conclusion
is a
logical consequence of the premises; an
inductive argument asserts that the
truth of the
conclusion is supported by the premises. Each premise and the conclusion are
only either true or false, not
ambiguous. The sentences comprising an argument are referred to as being
either true or false, not as being valid or invalid;
arguments are referred to as being valid or invalid, not as being
true or false. Some authors refer to the premises and conclusion
using the terms declarative sentence, statement, proposition,
sentence, or even indicative utterance. The reason for the variety
is concern about the ontological significance of the terms,
proposition in particular. Whichever term is used, each premise and the
conclusion must be capable of being true or false and nothing else: they are
truthbearers. The MECE principle,
mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive, is a
grouping
principle which says that data in a group should be divided into subgroups that
comprehensively represent that group (no gaps) without overlapping. This is
desirable for the purpose of analysis, because it avoids both the problem of
double counting and the risk of overlooking information. The MECE principle
is useful in the
business mapping process. If information can be arranged exhaustively and
without double counting in each level of the hierarchy, the way of arrangement
is ideal. Examples of MECE categorization would include categorizing people by
year of birth (assuming all years are known). A non-MECE example would be
categorization by nationality, because nationalities are neither mutually
exclusive (some people have dual nationality) nor collectively exhaustive (some
people have none).
having no part higher than another;
having a flat or even surface.
2.
being in a plane parallel to the
plane of the horizon; horizontal.
3.
equal, as one thing with another or
two or more things with one another.
4.
even, equable, or uniform.
5.
filled to a height even with the rim
of a container:
a level teaspoon of salt.
6.
mentally well-balanced; sensible;
rational:
to keep a level head in a crisis.
–noun
7.
a device used for determining or
adjusting something to a horizontal
surface.
8.
Surveying.
a.
Also called
surveyor's level.an instrument for
observing levels, having
a sighting device,
usually telescopic, and
capable of being made
precisely horizontal.
an imaginary line or surface
everywhere at right angles to the
plumb line.
10.
the horizontal line or plane in
which anything is situated, with
regard to its elevation.
11.
a horizontal position or condition.
12.
an extent of land approximately
horizontal and unbroken by
irregularities.
13.
a level or flat surface.
14.
a position with respect to a given
or specified height:
The water rose to a level of 30
feet.
15.
a position or plane in a graded
scale of values; status; rank:
His acting was on the level of an
amateur. They associated only with
those on their own economic level.
16.
an extent, measure, or degree of
intensity, achievement, etc.:
a high level of sound; an average
level of writing skill.
17.
Linguistics. a major
subdivision of linguistic structure,
as phonology, morphology, or syntax,
often viewed as hierarchically
ordered.
Compare
component
(def. 6a),
stratum
(def. 8).
18.
Mining. the
interconnected horizontal mine
workings at a particular elevation
or depth:
There had been a cave-in on the
1500-foot level.
–verb (used
with object)
19.
to make (a surface) level, even, or
flat:
to level ground before building.
20.
to raise or lower to a particular
level or position; to make
horizontal.
21.
to bring (something) to the level of
the ground:
They leveled the trees to make way
for the new highway.
22.
Informal. to knock
down (a person):
He leveled his opponent with one
blow.
23.
to make equal, as in status or
condition.
24.
to make even or uniform, as
coloring.
25.
Historical Linguistics.
(of the alternative forms of
a paradigm) to reduce in number or
regularize:
Old English “him” (dative)
and “hine”
(accusative)
have been
leveled to Modern English “him.”
26.
to aim or point (a weapon,
criticism, etc.) at a mark or
objective:
He leveled his criticism at the
college as a whole.
27.
Surveying.
to find the relative
elevation of different points in
(land), as with a level.
–verb (used
without object)
28.
to bring things or persons to a
common level.
29.
to aim a weapon, criticism, etc., at
a mark or objective.
30.
Surveying.
a.
to take a level.
b.
to use a leveling
instrument.
31.
to speak truthfully and openly
(often fol. by
with):
You're not leveling with me about
your trip to Chicago.
32.
Obsolete. to direct
the mind, purpose, etc., at
something.
–adverb
33.
Obsolete. in a level,
direct, or even way or line.
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