Technology
Technology is a broad concept that deals with an animal species' usage and knowledge of tools and crafts, and how it affects an animal species' ability to control and adapt to its environment. Technology is a term with origins in the Greek "technologia", "τεχνολογία" — "techne", "τέχνη" ("craft") and "logia", "λογία" ("saying").[1] However, a strict definition is elusive; "technology" can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines, hardware or utensils, but can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and techniques. The term can either be applied generally or to specific areas: examples include "construction technology", "medical technology", or "state-of-the-art technology".
The human race's use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The prehistorical discovery of the ability to control fire increased the available sources of food and the invention of the wheel helped humans in travelling in and controlling their environment. Recent technological developments, including the printing press, the telephone, and the Internet, have lessened physical barriers to communication and allowed humans to interact on a global scale. However, not all technology has been used for peaceful purposes; the development of weapons of ever-increasing destructive power has progressed throughout history, from clubs to nuclear weapons.
Technology has affected society and its surroundings in a number of ways. In many societies, technology has helped develop more advanced economies (including today's global economy) and has allowed the rise of a leisure class. Many technological processes produce unwanted by-products, known as pollution, and deplete natural resources, to the detriment of the Earth and its environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and new technology often raises new ethical questions. Examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, a term originally applied only to machines, and the challenge of traditional norms.
Philosophical debates have arisen over the present and future use of technology in society, with disagreements over whether technology improves the human condition or worsens it. Neo-Luddism, anarcho-primitivism, and similar movements criticise the pervasiveness of technology in the modern world, claiming that it harms the environment and alienates people; proponents of ideologies such as transhumanism and techno-progressivism view continued technological progress as beneficial to society and the human condition. Indeed, until recently, it was believed that the development of technology was restricted only to human beings, but recent scientific studies indicate that other primates and certain dolphin communities have developed simple tools and learned to pass their knowledge to other generations.
Contents [hide]
1 Definition and usage
2 Science, engineering and technology
3 Role in human history
3.1 Paleolithic (2.5 million – 10,000 BC)
3.1.1 Stone tools
3.1.2 Fire
3.1.3 Clothing and shelter
3.2 Neolithic through Classical Antiquity (10,000BC – 300AD)
3.2.1 Metal tools
3.2.2 Energy and Transport
3.3 Modern history (0CE —)
4 Technology and philosophy
4.1 Technicism
4.2 Optimism
4.3 Pessimism
4.4 Appropriate technology
5 Other animal species
6 See also
6.1 Theories and concepts in technology
6.2 Economics of technology
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
10 Further reading
Definition and usage
The invention of the printing press made it possible for scientists and politicians to communicate their ideas with ease, leading to the Age of Enlightenment; an example of technology as a cultural force.In general technology is the relationship that society has with its tools and crafts, and to what extent society can control its environment. The Merriam-Webster dictionary offers a definition of the term: "the practical application of knowledge especially in a particular area" and "a capability given by the practical application of knowledge".[1] Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 "Real World of Technology" lecture, gave another definition of the concept; it is "practice, the way we do things around here".[2]
In
biology, a species is one of the basic units
of
biological classification and a
taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a
group of organisms capable of interbreeding and
producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this
definition is adequate, more precise or differing
measures are often used, such as based on similarity of
DNA or morphology. Presence of specific locally adapted
traits may further subdivide species into
subspecies.
The commonly used names for plant and animal taxa
sometimes correspond to species: for example, "lion,"
"walrus,"
and "Camphor
tree" – each refers to a species. In other cases
common names do not: for example, "deer"
refers to a
family of 34 species, including
Eld's Deer,
Red Deer and
Elk (Wapiti). The last two species were once
considered a single species, illustrating how species
boundaries may change with increased scientific
knowledge.
A usable definition of the word "species" and
reliable methods of identifying particular species are
essential for stating and testing biological theories
and for measuring
biodiversity. Traditionally, multiple examples of a
proposed species must be studied for unifying characters
before it can be regarded as a species. Extinct species
known only from fossils are generally difficult to give
precise taxonomic rankings to.
Because of the difficulties with both defining and
tallying the total numbers of different species in the
world, it is estimated that there are anywhere between 2
and 100 million different species.[1]
In
scientific classification, a species is assigned a
two-part name, treated as
Latin, although roots from any language can be used
as well as names of locales or individuals. The
genus is listed first (with its leading letter
capitalized), followed by a second term: for example,
gray wolves belong to the species Canis lupus,
coyotes to Canis latrans, golden jackals to
Canis aureus, etc., and all of those belong to the
genus
Canis (which also contains many other species).
The name of the species is the whole
binomial, not just the second term (which may be
called
specific name for animals).
Biological classification or scientific
classification in biology, is a method by which
biologists group and categorize
species of
organisms. Biological classification is a form of
scientific taxonomy, but should be distinguished
from
folk taxonomy, which lacks scientific basis. Modern
biological classification has its root in the work of
Carolus Linnaeus, who grouped species according to
shared physical characteristics. These groupings since
have been revised to improve consistency with the
Darwinian principle of
common descent.
Molecular systematics, which uses
DNA sequences as data, has driven many recent
revisions and is likely to continue to do so. Biological
classification belongs to the science of
biological systematics.
Current systems of classifying forms of
life descend from the thought presented by the Greek
philosopher
Aristotle, who published in his
metaphysical and
logical works the first known classification of
everything whatsoever, or "being". This is the scheme
that gave moderns such words as substance, species and
genus and was retained in modified and less general form
by
Linnaeus.
Aristotle also studied animals and classified them
according to method of reproduction, as did Linnaeus
later with plants. Aristotle's animal classification was
soon made obsolete by additional knowledge and was
forgotten.
The philosophical classification is in brief as
follows.[1]
Primary substance is the individual being; for example,
Peter, Paul, etc. Secondary substance is a
predicate that can properly or characteristically be
said of a class of primary substances; for example, man
of Peter, Paul, etc. The characteristic must not be
merely in the individual; for example, being skilled in
grammar. Grammatical skill leaves most of Peter out and
therefore is not characteristic of him. Similarly man
(all of mankind) is not in Peter; rather, he is in man.
Species is the secondary substance that is most
proper to its individuals. The most characteristic thing
that can be said of Peter is that Peter is a man. An
identity is being postulated: "man" is equal to all its
individuals and only those individuals. Members of a
species differ only in number but are totally the same
type.
A biologist is a
scientist devoted to and producing results in
biology through the study of
organisms. Typically biologists study organisms and
their relationship to their environment. Biologists
involved in basic research attempt to discover
underlying mechanisms that govern how organisms work.
Biologists involved in applied research attempt to
develop or improve medical, industrial or agricultural
processes.
There are many types of biologists. Some deal with
the
macroscopic world, and others with the
microscopic. There is much overlap between different
fields, and it is often hard to classify a biologist as
only one of them. Many jobs in biology as a field
require an
academic degree. A
Ph.D. (or equivalent) is generally required to
direct independent research, and involves a
specialization in a specific area of
biology (U.S. Department of Labor). Many biological
scientists work in research and development. Some
conduct basic research to advance our knowledge of
living organisms, including bacteria and other
infectious agents. Basic biological research enhances
our understanding so that we can develop solutions to
human health problems and improve the natural
environment. These biological scientists mostly work in
government, university, or private industry
laboratories, often exploring new areas of research.
Many expand on specialized research they started in
graduate school.
Many research scientists must submit grant proposals
to obtain funding for their projects. Colleges and
universities, private industry, and Federal Government
agencies such as the National Institutes of Health and
the National Science Foundation contribute to the
support of scientists whose research proposals are
determined to be financially feasible and to have the
potential to advance new ideas or processes.
Biological scientists who work in applied research or
product development use knowledge gained by basic
research to develop new drugs, treatments, and medical
diagnostic tests; increase crop yields; and develop new
biofuels. They usually have less freedom than basic
researchers do to choose the emphasis of their research,
and they spend more time working on marketable
treatments to meet the business goals of their
employers. Biological scientists doing applied research
and product development in private industry may be
required to describe their research plans or results to
nonscientists who are in a position to veto or approve
their ideas.
Introducing Fabtron's premium browband headstalls. Made of 5/8inch premium doubled and stitched harness leather in a chestnut finish_ this headstall promises to last through all your horse's expeditions. The headstall features double cheek adjustments_ chicago screw bit ends_ and nickel-plated hardware.
Price: 31.50
Introducing Fabtron's premium browband headstalls. Made of 5/8inch premium doubled and stitched harness leather in a glossy black finish_ this headstall promises to last through all your horse's expeditions. The headstall features double cheek adjustments_ chicago screw bit ends_ and nickel-plated hardware.
Price: 31.50
This beautiful roping breast strap proves Billy Cook's attention to detail. Made from doubled and stitched leather_ this breast strap has a shaped body_ SS Dees_ and a hand tooled Entz design.
Price: 123.25
This standard breast strap by Tucker is made with the attention to quality and detail that you should expect from Tucker craftsmen. The fine strap leather has been doubled and stitched to create a heavy duty breast strap. The shoulder straps come off of the horse's shoulders straight back to the rings on your saddle. It's ideal for a more traditional western look. The chest tab is lined with fleece for extra comfort. Specifications: Shoulder to center 28inch_ Center to attatchment strap: 18inch_ Center to girth 25inch.
Price: 66.50
This breast strap by Tucker is fashioned to match their newest line of saddles. It provides plenty of support to secure your saddle in the roughest country. The 1inch wide strap is doubled and stitched and fashioned with all brass hardware. The handy over the neck strap keeps the breast strap over your horse's shoulders. The chest tab is lined with fleece for extra comfort.~@Specifications: Shoulder to center: 20inch_ Center to girth 23inch.
Price: 101.57
Specially designed to match Tucker's latest line of premium saddles_ this breast collar is made of quality materials and craftsmanship to enhance your horse's look while providing durability on the trail. This Ranch Hand Breast Collar is made of doubled and stitched leather with hand finished edges and features basket stamping and chrome hardware.
Price: 106.67
This breast collar is part of a new and exciting line of Tucker tack made of matching saddles_ breast collars_ and headstalls. Pick your favorite design to give your horse a completed look that will also give you the durability you need out on the trails. This Coronado Breast Strap is made of premium doubled and stitched leather with hand finished edges and features floral tooling with chrome hardware.
Price: 132.17
Tucker's Cheyenne Frontier Breast Collar is part of an exciting line of coordinating Tucker Tack_ allowing you to pick the look you like and give your horse a coordinated collection. This breast collar is made of premium doubled and stitched leather with hand finished edges_ giving you the durability you need when out on the trails. It also features chain stamping and brass hardware.
Price: 84.15
Take your horse's tack to the next level of style and durability with Tucker's new line of coordinating tack. This breast strap is made to match Tucker's new saddle and breast strap with unique tooling and styling. It has beautiful spot floral tooling and brass hardware. The doubled and stitched leather is gently contoured at the center and it has 1inch tugs and a 2inch shoulder strap.
Price: 132.17
This breast collar is part of a unique collection from Tucker tack with coordinating breast collars_ headstalls_ and saddles to give your horse a completed look. This Cimarron Breast Strap is made of doubled and stitched leather with hand finished edges_ promising the durability you need out on the trails. It also features barbed wire tooling and brass hardware.
Price: 98.70
We're proud to stock saddles in rare sizes. Big Horn's Extra Wide trail saddle is the answer for the especially broad horse. This saddle is built on a fiberglass covered wood tree with an extra wide 7 1/2inch gullet. It has a 16inch grainout_ padded seat and contains 7/8 position double conventional rigging with heavy stainless steel dees. The leather is finished in a show brown. ~@~@~@Tree: Fiberglass covered wood tree with extra wide gullet ~@Seat: 16inch grainout_ padded ~@Cantle: 4inch ~@Gullet: 7 1/2inch ~@Rigging: 7/8 position double conventional_ extra heavy stainless steel dees ~@Trim: Leather front and cantle binding. Cordura skirts_ fenders_ and housings ~@Finish: Show brown ~@Weight: Approximately 22 lbs
Price: 621.50
Gaited Horse Saddle by Big Horn ~@~@In response to the increasing popularity of gaited horses_ the Horse Saddle Shop is proud to stock saddles especially made for inchthe gentlemen of the horse worldinch---the non-trotting_ gaited horse. This saddle has is made on a Ralide tree with gaited horse bars and a 13inch barrel front. It features Cordura nylon skirts_ housings_ and fenders_ as well as Ralide stirrups with laced suede cushioned foot pads.~@~@Tree: Ralide 13inch barrel front_ Gaited Horse bars ~@Rigging: 7/8 position single front with stainless steel dees ~@Seat: 16inch or 17inch suede padded seat and jockeys ~@Cantle: 4inch ~@Trim: Cordura nylon skirt_ housing_ and fenders_ leather conchos; suede front_ cantle binding_ and horn ~@Stirrups: Ralide with laced suede cushioned foot pad ~@Finish: Black Cordura with black binding ~@Weight: Approximately 15 lbs
Price: 327.00
Show your competition you mean business with this beautiful racing saddle by Billy Cook. From the rawhide braided horn to the bell laced stirrups_ this saddle is built for beauty and speed. It's built on a rawhide covered tree with Quarter horse bars and features a cantle with rawhide overlay_ inskirt rigging_ and a cut out skirt for close contact between you and your horse. The light leather features a double border and Half Breed basket tooling and the seat has a unique quilted design. 27 strand cinch included.~@~@Tree: BW Barrel_ rawhide covered_ Quarter horse bars ~@Seat Size: 15inch ~@Horn: 1 3/4inch rawhide braided with BC cap ~@Swell: 13inch BW Tooled ~@Cantle: 5inch rawhide overlay ~@Rigging: In skirt ~@Skirts: Cut out for close contact; artificial wool lined ~@Stirrups: 2inch bell rawhide laced ~@Pattern: Double border and half breed basket; WSO seat and fender~@~@Although through the years many have tried to imitate Billy Cook products_ even to the point of counterfieting_ THERE IS ONLY ONE GENUINE inchBILLY COOK CLASSIC SADDLEinch MANUFACTURER. HorseSaddleShop.com is happy to sell the Genuine Billy Cook saddles made in Sulphur_ Oklahoma_ owned by Mr. Billy Cook. There are other saddle manufacturers that sell their own Billy Cook saddles. If you buy a Billy Cook saddle be sure that it is manufactured in Sulphur_ Oklahoma.
Price: 1011.50
#10-2146 Billy Cook Arena Roping Saddle~@~@Billy Cook knows how to make a roping saddle that is not only performs the way you need it to_ but has a classic look and style that will make you feel confident in your performance. This beautiful Arena Roper by Billy Cook has the durability and quality you need in a roping saddle. With the low quarterhorse bars_ short horn_ and roper stirrups_ you'll be able to maneuver in this saddle without fear of slipping. Special features include a uniquely quilted seat_ hand tooled swell_ and 21 strand roper cinch. The leather is waffle stamped with a basket design and running W border and oiled to finish.~@~@~@Tree: Rawhide covered Q.H. bars ~@Seat Size:16inch quilted ~@Horn: 2 1/2inch short post ~@Swell: 13inch hand tooled ~@Cantle: 4inch overlay laced ~@Rigging: Full double stainless steel dees ~@Skirts: Artificial wool lined semi-square ~@Rear Cinch: 21 strand roper ~@Stirrups: 3inch Roper rawhide laced ~@Pattern: Waffle stamped with running W border ~@Finish: Oiled~@~@Although through the years many have tried to imitate Billy Cook products_ even to the point of counterfieting_ THERE IS ONLY ONE GENUINE inchBILLY COOK CLASSIC SADDLEinch MANUFACTURER. HorseSaddleShop.com is happy to sell the Genuine Billy Cook saddles made in Sulphur_ Oklahoma_ owned by Mr. Billy Cook. There are other saddle manufacturers that sell their own Billy Cook saddles. If you buy a Billy Cook saddle be sure that it is manufactured in Sulphur_ Oklahoma.
Price: 1174.00
#10-2150 Jody Ramer Roping Saddle by Billy Cook~@~@Competitor and professional trainer Jody Ramer has designed ropers he can put his name on. These arena-tested saddles by Billy Cook have the durability and quality you need in a roping saddle. JOdy Ramer Ropers are made on an O.Y. tree with the leg cut for close contact. This saddle has a 3inch cantle and are rigged with stainess steel dees_ cut out in front. Each saddle comes with a mohair cinch and 3inch roper stirrups. Special features include a quilted bicycle style seat and double border and basket hand tooling.~@~@Tree: Low TM rawhide covered Q.H. bars ~@Seat Size: 16inch quilted bicycle style ~@Horn: 2 1/2inch short post_ rawhide bound ~@Swell: 13inch undercut ~@Cantle: 3inch ~@Rigging: Full double stainless steel dees ~@Skirts: Artificial wool lined ~@Stirrups: 3inch Roper rawhide laced hand tooled ~@Pattern: Hand tooled with double border and basket ~@Finish: Oiled and polished~@~@Although through the years many have tried to imitate Billy Cook products_ even to the point of counterfieting_ THERE IS ONLY ONE GENUINE inchBILLY COOK CLASSIC SADDLEinch MANUFACTURER. HorseSaddleShop.com is happy to sell the Genuine Billy Cook saddles made in Sulphur_ Oklahoma_ owned by Mr. Billy Cook. There are other saddle manufacturers that sell their own Billy Cook saddles. If you buy a Billy Cook saddle be sure that it is manufactured in Sulphur_ Oklahoma.
Price: 1336.50
Billy Cook's perfect Arabian Saddle~@~@Look no further for a quality_ affordable saddle that you know is going to fit your Arabian horse. Built on a 16inch rawhide covered Arabian tree_ Billy Cook's talented craftsman have fashioned this saddle with comfort in mind. It features a 3 1-2inch cantle with a Cheyenne roll and tooled overlay_ 2inch bell stirrups that have been voered and tooled_ and stainless steel rigging. The black leather features Half Breed basket tooling and has been oiled and polished with hand dyed edges. The 27 strand cinch is included.~@~@Tree: Rawhide covered Arabian tree ~@Seat Size: 16inch ~@Horn: 1 3/4inch regular ~@Swell: 13inch ~@Cantle: 3 1/2inch with Cheyenne roll_ tooled overlay ~@Rigging: Skirt rigged with stainless steel rig plates in front and slotted rear ~@Skirts: Round artificial wool lining. ~@Cinch: 27 strand ~@Stirrups: 2inch Bell leather_ covered and tooled ~@Pattern: Half breed basket design ~@Finish: Oiled and polished. Hand dyed edges.
Price: 1141.50
Crates Leather Ladies Reining Saddle~@Ladies_ are you tired of riding in a saddle built for a man? We're proud to introduce Crates' Ladies Reiner--a saddle especially made for a woman. It is a light weight reining saddle made on the Equi-Fit reining tree_ Fiberglass Covered Wood_ with a very narrow ground seat especially for women. It also features light select saddle skirting with a soft grain-out padded seat. The leather is finished in a rich natural oil and hand tooled in a basket design.~@~@~@Tree: Crates exclusive Equifit Reiner_ Quarterhorse bars ~@Gullet: 6 5/8inch Wide_ 8inch High ~@Horn: Reiner 2 1/2inch High_ 2 1/2inch Cap ~@Seat: 5 1/2inch_ 3 1/2inch Cantle ~@Rigging: In-skirt Stainless Steel ~@Skirt: 26inch X 13inch_ Saddlefleece lined ~@Fender: 16 1/2inch X 7inch_ 2 1/2inch leathers_ belvins buckles ~@Finish: Natural oil ~@Weight: Approximately 28 lbs~@ Crates Leather Ladies Reining Saddle Ladies_ are you tired of riding in a saddle built for a man? We're proud to introduce Crates' Ladies Reiner--a saddle especially made for a woman. It is a light weight reining saddle made on the Equi-Fit reining tree_ Fiberglass Covered Wood_ with a very narrow ground seat especially for women. It also features light select saddle skirting with a soft grain-out padded seat. The leather is finished in a rich natural oil and hand tooled in a basket design.~@~@~@Tree: Crates exclusive Equifit Reiner_ Quarterhorse bars ~@Gullet: 6 5/8inch Wide_ 8inch High ~@Horn: Reiner 2 1/2inch High_ 2 1/2inch Cap ~@Seat: 5 1/2inch_ 3 1/2inch Cantle ~@Rigging: In-skirt Stainless Steel ~@Skirt: 26inch X 13inch_ Saddlefleece lined ~@Fender: 16 1/2inch X 7inch_ 2 1/2inch leathers_ belvins buckles ~@Finish: Natural oil ~@Weight: Approximately 28 lbs
Price: 1486.00
Ladies_ you know that saddle fit is crucial to a good ride and a happy horse. You also have probably figured out that a man's saddle just doesn't cut it. We're proud to introduce Crates' Ladies Reiner saddles--saddles especially made for a woman's body. It is a light weight reining saddle made on the Equi-Fit reining tree_ Fiberglass Covered Wood_ with a very narrow ground seat especially for women. It also features light select saddle skirting with a soft grain-out padded seat and tooled conchos and stirrups. The leather is finished in a rich chesntut and hand tooled in a basket design.~@~@~@Tree: Crates exclusive Equifit Reiner_ Quarterhorse bars ~@Gullet: 6 5/8inch Wide_ 8inch High ~@Horn: Reiner 2 1/2inch High_ 2 1/2inch Cap ~@Seat: 5 1/2inch_ 3 1/2inch Cantle ~@Rigging: In-skirt Stainless Steel ~@Skirt: 26inch X 13inch_ Saddlefleece lined ~@Fender: 16 1/2inch X 7inch_ 2 1/2inch leathers_ belvins buckles ~@Finish: Chestnut ~@Weight: Approximately 28 lbs
Price: 1486.00
