Technology
Technology is a broad concept that deals with an animal species' usage and knowledge of tools and crafts, and how it affects an animal species' ability to control and adapt to its environment. Technology is a term with origins in the Greek "technologia", "τεχνολογία" — "techne", "τέχνη" ("craft") and "logia", "λογία" ("saying").[1] However, a strict definition is elusive; "technology" can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines, hardware or utensils, but can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and techniques. The term can either be applied generally or to specific areas: examples include "construction technology", "medical technology", or "state-of-the-art technology".
The human race's use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The prehistorical discovery of the ability to control fire increased the available sources of food and the invention of the wheel helped humans in travelling in and controlling their environment. Recent technological developments, including the printing press, the telephone, and the Internet, have lessened physical barriers to communication and allowed humans to interact on a global scale. However, not all technology has been used for peaceful purposes; the development of weapons of ever-increasing destructive power has progressed throughout history, from clubs to nuclear weapons.
Technology has affected society and its surroundings in a number of ways. In many societies, technology has helped develop more advanced economies (including today's global economy) and has allowed the rise of a leisure class. Many technological processes produce unwanted by-products, known as pollution, and deplete natural resources, to the detriment of the Earth and its environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and new technology often raises new ethical questions. Examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, a term originally applied only to machines, and the challenge of traditional norms.
Philosophical debates have arisen over the present and future use of technology in society, with disagreements over whether technology improves the human condition or worsens it. Neo-Luddism, anarcho-primitivism, and similar movements criticise the pervasiveness of technology in the modern world, claiming that it harms the environment and alienates people; proponents of ideologies such as transhumanism and techno-progressivism view continued technological progress as beneficial to society and the human condition. Indeed, until recently, it was believed that the development of technology was restricted only to human beings, but recent scientific studies indicate that other primates and certain dolphin communities have developed simple tools and learned to pass their knowledge to other generations.
Contents [hide]
1 Definition and usage
2 Science, engineering and technology
3 Role in human history
3.1 Paleolithic (2.5 million – 10,000 BC)
3.1.1 Stone tools
3.1.2 Fire
3.1.3 Clothing and shelter
3.2 Neolithic through Classical Antiquity (10,000BC – 300AD)
3.2.1 Metal tools
3.2.2 Energy and Transport
3.3 Modern history (0CE —)
4 Technology and philosophy
4.1 Technicism
4.2 Optimism
4.3 Pessimism
4.4 Appropriate technology
5 Other animal species
6 See also
6.1 Theories and concepts in technology
6.2 Economics of technology
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
10 Further reading
Definition and usage
The invention of the printing press made it possible for scientists and politicians to communicate their ideas with ease, leading to the Age of Enlightenment; an example of technology as a cultural force.In general technology is the relationship that society has with its tools and crafts, and to what extent society can control its environment. The Merriam-Webster dictionary offers a definition of the term: "the practical application of knowledge especially in a particular area" and "a capability given by the practical application of knowledge".[1] Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 "Real World of Technology" lecture, gave another definition of the concept; it is "practice, the way we do things around here".[2]
In
biology, a species is one of the basic units
of
biological classification and a
taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a
group of organisms capable of interbreeding and
producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this
definition is adequate, more precise or differing
measures are often used, such as based on similarity of
DNA or morphology. Presence of specific locally adapted
traits may further subdivide species into
subspecies.
The commonly used names for plant and animal taxa
sometimes correspond to species: for example, "lion,"
"walrus,"
and "Camphor
tree" – each refers to a species. In other cases
common names do not: for example, "deer"
refers to a
family of 34 species, including
Eld's Deer,
Red Deer and
Elk (Wapiti). The last two species were once
considered a single species, illustrating how species
boundaries may change with increased scientific
knowledge.
A usable definition of the word "species" and
reliable methods of identifying particular species are
essential for stating and testing biological theories
and for measuring
biodiversity. Traditionally, multiple examples of a
proposed species must be studied for unifying characters
before it can be regarded as a species. Extinct species
known only from fossils are generally difficult to give
precise taxonomic rankings to.
Because of the difficulties with both defining and
tallying the total numbers of different species in the
world, it is estimated that there are anywhere between 2
and 100 million different species.[1]
In
scientific classification, a species is assigned a
two-part name, treated as
Latin, although roots from any language can be used
as well as names of locales or individuals. The
genus is listed first (with its leading letter
capitalized), followed by a second term: for example,
gray wolves belong to the species Canis lupus,
coyotes to Canis latrans, golden jackals to
Canis aureus, etc., and all of those belong to the
genus
Canis (which also contains many other species).
The name of the species is the whole
binomial, not just the second term (which may be
called
specific name for animals).
Biological classification or scientific
classification in biology, is a method by which
biologists group and categorize
species of
organisms. Biological classification is a form of
scientific taxonomy, but should be distinguished
from
folk taxonomy, which lacks scientific basis. Modern
biological classification has its root in the work of
Carolus Linnaeus, who grouped species according to
shared physical characteristics. These groupings since
have been revised to improve consistency with the
Darwinian principle of
common descent.
Molecular systematics, which uses
DNA sequences as data, has driven many recent
revisions and is likely to continue to do so. Biological
classification belongs to the science of
biological systematics.
Current systems of classifying forms of
life descend from the thought presented by the Greek
philosopher
Aristotle, who published in his
metaphysical and
logical works the first known classification of
everything whatsoever, or "being". This is the scheme
that gave moderns such words as substance, species and
genus and was retained in modified and less general form
by
Linnaeus.
Aristotle also studied animals and classified them
according to method of reproduction, as did Linnaeus
later with plants. Aristotle's animal classification was
soon made obsolete by additional knowledge and was
forgotten.
The philosophical classification is in brief as
follows.[1]
Primary substance is the individual being; for example,
Peter, Paul, etc. Secondary substance is a
predicate that can properly or characteristically be
said of a class of primary substances; for example, man
of Peter, Paul, etc. The characteristic must not be
merely in the individual; for example, being skilled in
grammar. Grammatical skill leaves most of Peter out and
therefore is not characteristic of him. Similarly man
(all of mankind) is not in Peter; rather, he is in man.
Species is the secondary substance that is most
proper to its individuals. The most characteristic thing
that can be said of Peter is that Peter is a man. An
identity is being postulated: "man" is equal to all its
individuals and only those individuals. Members of a
species differ only in number but are totally the same
type.
A biologist is a
scientist devoted to and producing results in
biology through the study of
organisms. Typically biologists study organisms and
their relationship to their environment. Biologists
involved in basic research attempt to discover
underlying mechanisms that govern how organisms work.
Biologists involved in applied research attempt to
develop or improve medical, industrial or agricultural
processes.
There are many types of biologists. Some deal with
the
macroscopic world, and others with the
microscopic. There is much overlap between different
fields, and it is often hard to classify a biologist as
only one of them. Many jobs in biology as a field
require an
academic degree. A
Ph.D. (or equivalent) is generally required to
direct independent research, and involves a
specialization in a specific area of
biology (U.S. Department of Labor). Many biological
scientists work in research and development. Some
conduct basic research to advance our knowledge of
living organisms, including bacteria and other
infectious agents. Basic biological research enhances
our understanding so that we can develop solutions to
human health problems and improve the natural
environment. These biological scientists mostly work in
government, university, or private industry
laboratories, often exploring new areas of research.
Many expand on specialized research they started in
graduate school.
Many research scientists must submit grant proposals
to obtain funding for their projects. Colleges and
universities, private industry, and Federal Government
agencies such as the National Institutes of Health and
the National Science Foundation contribute to the
support of scientists whose research proposals are
determined to be financially feasible and to have the
potential to advance new ideas or processes.
Biological scientists who work in applied research or
product development use knowledge gained by basic
research to develop new drugs, treatments, and medical
diagnostic tests; increase crop yields; and develop new
biofuels. They usually have less freedom than basic
researchers do to choose the emphasis of their research,
and they spend more time working on marketable
treatments to meet the business goals of their
employers. Biological scientists doing applied research
and product development in private industry may be
required to describe their research plans or results to
nonscientists who are in a position to veto or approve
their ideas.
This classic barrel racer by Billy Cook promises to give your horse the edge over the competition. From the rawhide braided horn to the bell laced stirrups_ this saddle is built for beauty and speed. It's built on a rawhide covered tree with Quarter horse bars and features a cantle with rawhide silver laced overlay_ and inskirt rigging. The light leather features floral and Half Breed tooling with roughout fenders and the seat has a unique quilted design. 21 strand cinch included.~@~@Tree: C.J. rawhide covered_ Quarter horse bars ~@Seat Size: 14inch_ 15inch ~@Horn: 1 3/4inch rawhide braided with BC cap ~@Swell: 13inch hand tooled with rawhide silver laced edge ~@Cantle: 4inch or 5inch rawhide overlay ~@Rigging: In skirt ~@Skirts: Artificial wool lined_ hoof pick holder ~@Stirrups: 2inch bell rawhide covered and laced ~@Pattern: Floral and half breed basket; WSO seat and fender
Price: 972.50
New Billy Cook Trail Saddle 1784~@Especially made for Veteran Trail Riders ~@~@Billy Cook proves his unique craftsmanship on the trail saddle with this creation. Built especially with trail riders in mind_ it's proven for comfort_ and fashioned for beauty. This trail saddle features a smooth quilted seat_ leather embossed stirrups_ and glossy Chestnut leather with a stamped border. Ride in style and buy for quality when you choose Billy Cook.~@~@Tree: Trail rawhide covered quarter horse bar. Especially made for trail riders. ~@Seat Size: 15inch smooth padded quilt ~@Horn: 2 1/4inch Pleasure leather covered with BC cap ~@Swell: 13inch hand stamped ~@Cantle: 5inch leather with Cheyenne roll ~@Rigging: In skirt for close contact_ SS dees in rear ~@Skirts: Artificial wool lined ~@Stirrups: 2inch Bell leather covered ~@Pattern: Hand stamped border ~@Finish: Chestnut with saddle strings_ Clip N Dee
Price: 1174.00
16inch Silver Premium Show Saddle by Billy Cook FQHB 9009~@~@~@Show the judges you're serious enough to compete with the big dogs with Billy Cook's Premium Silver Plated Show Saddle. We're convinced that the tack you wear into the ring leaves an impression. What does your show tack say about you? ~@This premium saddle is built on a western pleasure rawhide covered tree with quarter horse bars and gullet. The skirts promise close contact and contain genuine wool lining to absorb shock and wick away moisture. The saddle also includes 3inch bell leather covered tooled stirrups. The light oil leather features hand tooling in an Entz design and silver trim and swell plates. ~@~@~@Tree:Western pleasure rawhide covered quarter horse bar & gullet ~@Seat Size: 16inch padded seat ~@Horn: 2 1/4inch California_ Leather covered with Billy Cook cap ~@Swell: 13inch with swell plates ~@Cantle: 3 1/2inch with sterling silver plated trim ~@Rigging: In skirt ~@Skirts: Genuine wool lining ~@Stirrups: 3inch Bell leather covered and tooled ~@Pattern: Entz hand tooling
Price: 3052.50
Welcome to working in comfort.~@~@The new Crates Cowhorse Saddle is a truly versatile WORKING saddle_ made to be used. It's a high quality multi-purpose system ideal for reined cowhorse_ cutting_ and reining. If your horse works as hard as you do_ you'll both appreciate this saddle. It is built on Crate's special cowhorse tree with equifit quarterhorse bars and features a rawhide tipped cantle and horn and inskirt stainless steel rigging. You'll also love the way this saddle looks with its beautiful chestnut leather and basketweave stamping. ~@~@~@Tree: Crates Cowhorse_ Equifit Quarterhorse bars ~@Gullet: 6 5/8inch wide_ 8inch high 13inch Wide ~@Cantle: 3 1/2inch Oval ~@Horn: Cowhorse 3 1/4inch High 2inch Cap ~@Skirt: Square 28inch x 13inch Saddle Fleece Lined ~@Rigging: Crates In-Skirt Stainless Steel_ double ~@Tooling: Basket Stamped ~@Weight: About 32 Pounds
Price: 1479.50
Hard Seat Cutting Saddle by Dakota ~@with Montana Silversmith Conchos!~@~@~@We'd be hard pressed to find a more durable OR more beautiful cutting saddle than this model by Dakota. Built on a fiberglass covered wood tree with quarter horse bars_ this saddle promises to be strong and durable. It contains double 7/8 position rigging with stainless steel dees. The stark contrast between the leather is beautiful. The saddle is topped off with Montana Silversmith conchos. Buy with confidence with Dakota's five year tree warranty. ~@~@~@Tree: Fiberglass covered w/ 5 year warranty ~@Seat Size: 16inch ~@Horn: 4inch ~@Cantle: 3 1/2inch ~@Rigging: Double stainless steel dees_ 7/8 position ~@Weight: About 35 lbs ~@Finish: Montana Silversmith conchos
Price: 817.50
This Billy Cook breast collar is made of doubled and stitched leather for extra durability. The surface is tooled with a Running W and features brass hardware.
Price: 80.55
If you want a work saddle that will take the rigors of your day and still look great at the end of it_ try a Billy Cook. This Arbuckle Wade Ranch saddle has classic Billy Cook quality and craftsmanship. It special features include flat plate rigging with brass hardware_ rawhide covered bell stirrups_ and wrapped horn. The chestnut leather has been tooled with a waffle border_ then oiled and polished. 27 strand rear cinch included.~@~@Tree: Wade rawhide covered Q.H. bars ~@Seat Size: 15inch or 16inch ~@Horn: 4inch Post horn with wrap ~@Swell: 9inch leather covered ~@Cantle: 4inch ~@Rigging: Flat plate rigging with brass hardware ~@Skirts: Artificial wool lined ~@Cinch: 27 strand_ Mohair ~@Stirrups: 3inch Bell Rawhide covered ~@Pattern: Waffle border~@~@Although through the years many have tried to imitate Billy Cook products_ even to the point of counterfeiting_ THERE IS ONLY ONE GENUINE inchBILLY COOK CLASSIC SADDLEinch MANUFACTURER. HorseSaddleShop.com is happy to sell the Genuine Billy Cook saddles made in Sulphur_ Oklahoma_ owned by Mr. Billy Cook. There are other saddle manufacturers that sell their own Billy Cook saddles. If you buy a Billy Cook saddle be sure that it is manufactured in Sulphur_ Oklahoma.
Price: 1362.50
Crates Classic Reining Saddle 2221~@~@Crates knows how to deliver quality at the best price. This classic saddle is a light weight reining saddle made on the Equi-Fit reining tree_ Fiberglass Covered Wood_ with a very narrow center pocket ground seat to help you stay in place. It also features butterfly skirts for close contact. The leather is finished in a natural oil and corner stamped in a basketweave design.~@~@~@Tree: Crates exclusive Equifit Reiner_ Quarterhorse bars or Full QH Bars ~@Gullet: 6 5/8inch (QH)_ 7inch (FQHB) ~@Horn: Reiner 2 1/2inch High_ 2 1/2inch Cap ~@Seat: Soft grain-out with padding ~@Rigging: In-skirt Stainless Steel ~@Skirt: Shaped butterfly for close contact_ Saddlefleece lined ~@Finish: Natural with corner basket stamping
Price: 1349.50
Welcome to a beautiful and affordable racing saddle that will give your horse the freedom to win! Dakota Saddelry gives you a saddle your horse will perform and look great in without costing you an arm and a leg. This barrel racer is built for speed. It features a flexible tree that promises to give more freedom of movement_ shaving those important seconds off your time. The inskirt brass rigging to help you stay close to the horse. The round skirts will give the horse the freedom it needs. The saddle is good-looking_ too_ with rawhide braided horn_ cantle_ and performance stirrups. The beauty comes from the border basket tooling design combined with rawhide braided horn_ cantle_ and stirrups. Best of all_ it comes with a ten year tree warranty from Dakota so that you can buy with confidence. ~@~@~@~@Tree: Full flex Semi-Quarterhorse bars with 10 year warranty ~@Color: Light Oiled ~@Horn: 3 3/4inch with 2 1/4inch cap_ rawhide braided ~@Rigging: Double brass In-skirt. ~@Cantle: 5inch natural rawhide Silver Laced ~@Stirrup Leathers: 2-1/2inch performance with leather-covered buckles ~@Stirrups:2 1/2inch rawhide contest ~@Weight: Approx 30lbs
Price: 765.00
You don't need to pay an arm and a leg to shave seconds off your time. Dakota Saddelry gives you a saddle your horse will perform and look great in without the flashy accessories that do little for your performance. This barrel racer is built for speed. It has inskirt stainless steel rigging to help you stay close to the horse. The round skirts will give the horse the freedom it needs. The saddle is good-looking_ too_ with rawhide braided horn_ cantle_ and performance stirrups. The light oiled leather has been hand-tooled with a border weave and has Montana Silversmith trim. Best of all_ it comes with a five year tree warranty from Dakota so that you can buy with confidence. ~@~@~@~@Tree: Fiberglass covered Semi-Quarterhorse bars with 5 year warranty ~@Color: Light Oiled ~@Horn: 3 3/4inch with 2 1/4inch cap_ rawhide braided ~@Rigging: Double Stainless Steel C In-skirt. ~@Cantle: 5inch natural rawhide Silver Laced ~@Stirrup Leathers: 2-1/2inch performance with leather-covered buckles ~@Stirrups:2 1/2inch rawhide contest ~@Weight: Approx 30lbs
Price: 712.50
Let us recommend this Dakota Pleasure saddle for the trails. It's perfect for anyone who spends long hours in the saddle. Because it's a Dakota_ it promises to outlast other trail saddles and still feel and look great for years to come. The saddle features stainless steel 7/8 rigging and a 5inch cantle to keep you in the saddle. The fenders and jockeys are rough-out for a softer_ yet more secure feel. The hand tooled Acorn and Oak Leaf pattern_ rust suede seat_ and Montana conchos give this saddle a distinctive look. Comes with rear dees under the conchos. Best of all_ you get Dakota's five year tree warranty so you can buy with confidence.~@~@Tree: Fiberglass covered Semi-Quarterhorse bars with 5 year warranty ~@Color: Light Oiled ~@Horn: 3 1/2inch rawhide braided ~@Rigging: Double Stainless Steel 7/8 ~@Cantle: 5inch Laced Cheyenne with rawhide ~@Stirrup Leathers: 2-1/2inch performance with leather-covered buckles ~@Weight: Approx 35lbs
Price: 877.50
Looking for the perfect saddle pad? Rest easy with Tucker's Toklat Non-Slip Trail Pad. It's specially designed for Tucker saddles_ but fits most square skirt saddle. It has a non-slip mesh bottom that breathes and cleans easily. The closely-sheared fleece top will hold your saddle in place and the polyester filler will cushion your horse's back. The nylon edges and wear leathers add durability. All you need to do to clean this saddle pad is throw it in the washer and hang dry. ~@~@Toklat is a saddle pad manufacturer with over 25 years of experience. They put quality material and workmanship into each pad and blanket for dependable durability_ performance_ and a great look.
Price: 72.00
Turn a few heads next time you walk into the ring.~@~@We're proud to introduce a new pair of Tex Tan AQHA saddles featuring cutting-edge craftsmanship and design. This saddle's special features include a center pocket seat_ close contact skin_ soft fenders and jockeys and three hand engraved sterling silver plated corner plates. The stirrups_ skirts_ and cantle are fully tooled in a cactus flower design. Feel free to enlarge the picture of this beautiful saddle_ but try not to drool on your keyboard. ~@~@~@Tree: 16inch Equi-Tex ~@Rigging: 7/8 double dee ~@Horn Size: 2inch cap_ 2inch high silver ~@Cantle: 4inch ~@Bar: Quarter Horse ~@Swell: 13inch ~@Color: Ultra Lite ~@Silver: Hand Engraved Silver-plated ~@Weight: Approx 39 lbs
Price: 2662.50
As a company Big Horn does an excellent job at making sure that every size and shape or horse has a saddle to fit it. This new model is called a Flat Top-Line saddle_ making it perfect for any horse with just that---a flat top-line. If your horse or mule has a straight_ flat back with less-defined withers_ this is the saddle for you. It's built on a fiberglass-covered wood tree and fashioned out of Big Horn's quality Cordura. It also features swept-back swells_ brass hardware_ and a grain-out_ padded seat. ~@~@Specifications: ~@Tree: Fiberglass-covered wood with flat top-line bars_ swept-back swells ~@Seat: Grain-out_ padded ~@Cantle: 4inch ~@Gullet: 6 3/4inch ~@Rigging: 7/8inch solid brass double conventional rigging. Brass crupper ring_ breeching_ and breast collar dees ~@Trim: Brass hardware and saddle strings ~@Finish: Show brown ~@Weight: 22 lbs
Price: 621.50
