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War

War is the reciprocal and violent application of force between hostile political entities aimed at bringing about a desired political end-state via armed conflict. In his seminal work, On War, Carl Von Clausewitz calls war the "continuation of political intercourse, carried on with other means."[1] War is an interaction in which two or more militaries have a “struggle of wills”.[2] When qualified as a civil war, it is a dispute inherent to a given society, and its nature is in the conflict over modes of governance rather than sovereignty. War is not considered to be the same as mere occupation, murder or genocide because of the reciprocal nature of the violent struggle, and the organized nature of the units involved.

War is also a cultural entity, and its practice is not linked to any single type of political organisation or society. Rather, as discussed by John Keegan in his “History Of Warfare”, war is a universal phenomenon whose form and scope is defined by the society that wages it. [3] The conduct of war extends along a continuum, from the almost universal tribal warfare that began well before recorded human history, to wars between city states, nations, or empires. A group of combatants and their support is called an army on land, a navy at sea, and air force in the air. Wars may be prosecuted simultaneously in one or more different theatres. Within each theatre, there may be one or more consecutive military campaigns. A military campaign includes not only fighting but also intelligence, troop movements, supplies, propaganda, and other components. Continuous conflict is traditionally called a battle, although this terminology is not always fed to conflicts involving aircraft, missiles or bombs alone, in the absence of ground troops or naval forces.

War is not limited to the human species, as ants engage in massive intra-species conflicts which might be termed warfare. It is theorized that other species also engage in similar behavior, although this is not well documented. [4][5][6]

Contents

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[edit] History of war

Main article: History of war

Some believe war has always been with us; others stress the lack of clear evidence that war is not in our prehistoric past, and the fact that many peaceful, non-military societies have and still do exist.


Originally, war likely consisted of small-scale raiding. Since the rise of the state some 5000 years ago, military activity has occurred over much of the globe. The advent of gunpowder and the acceleration of technological advances led to modern warfare.

Since the close of the Vietnam War, the ideas expounded by the Prussian military theorist Carl von Clausewitz (1780-1831) have come to thoroughly permeate American military writing, doctrinal, theoretical, and historical. His book On War, first published (as Vom Kriege) in 1832, was adopted as a key text at the Naval War College in 1976, the Air War College in 1978, the Army War College in 1981. It has always been central at the U.S. Army's School for Advanced Military Studies at Leavenworth (founded in 1983). The U.S. Marine Corps's brilliant little philosophical field manual FMFM 1: Warfighting (1989) is essentially a distillation of On War, and the newer Marine Corps Doctrinal Publications (MCDPs, c.1997) are equally reflective of Clausewitz's basic concepts.*1

This is not the first time Clausewitz has been in fashion. Indeed, On War has been the bible of many thoughtful soldiers ever since Field Marshal Helmuth von Moltke attributed to its guidance his stunning victories in the wars of German unification (1864, 1866, 1870-71). Nor is it the first time that individual American soldiers and military thinkers have been attracted by his ideas: George Patton, Albert Wedemeyer, and—especially—Dwight Eisenhower were intensely interested in what he had to say.

It is, however, the first time that the American armed forces as institutions have turned to Clausewitz. While the philosopher had insisted that war was "simply the expression of politics by other means," the traditional attitude of American soldiers had been that "politics and strategy are radically and fundamentally things apart. Strategy begins where politics end. All that soldiers ask is that once the policy is settled, strategy and command shall be regarded as being in a sphere apart from politics."*2 The sudden acceptability of Clausewitz in the wake of Vietnam is not difficult to account for, for among the major military theorists only Clausewitz seriously struggled with the sort of dilemma that American military leaders faced in the aftermath of their defeat. Clearly, in what had come to be called in scathing terms a "political war," the political and military components of the American war effort had come unstuck. It ran against the grain of America's military men to criticize elected civilian leaders, but it was just as difficult to take the blame upon themselves. Clausewitz's analysis could not have been more relevant:

The more powerful and inspiring the motives for war,... the more closely will the military aims and the political objects of war coincide, and the more military and less political will war appear to be. On the other hand, the less intense the motives, the less will the military element's natural tendency to violence coincide with political directives. As a result, war will be driven further from its natural course, the political object will be more and more at variance with the aim of ideal war, and the conflict will seem increasingly political in character.*3

When people talk, as they often do, about harmful political influence on the management of war, they are not really saying what they mean. Their quarrel should be with the policy itself, not with its influence.

Vom Kriege (IPA[fɔm ˈkʁiːgə]) is a book on war and military strategy by Prussian general Carl von Clausewitz, written mostly after the Napoleonic wars, between 1816 and 1830, and published posthumously by his wife in 1832. It has been translated into English several times as On War. On War is actually an unfinished work; Clausewitz had set about revising his accumulated manuscripts in 1827, but did not live to finish the task. His wife eventually compiled all the work and the final two chapters Clausewitz never finished.

On War is one of the first books on modern military strategy. This is mainly due to Clausewitz' integration of politics and social and economic issues as some of the most important factors in deciding the outcomes of a war. It is one of the most important treatises on strategy ever written, and is prescribed at various military academies to this day.

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[edit] History

Carl von Clausewitz was a Prussian officer among those baffled by how the armies of the French Revolution and Napoleon had changed the nature of war through their ability to motivate the populace and thus unleash war on a greater scale than had previously been the case in Europe. Clausewitz was well educated and had a strong interest in art, science, and education, but he was a professional soldier who spent a considerable part of his life fighting against Napoleon. There is no doubt that the insights he gained from his experiences, combined with a solid grasp of European history, provided much of the raw material for the book. On War represents the compilation of his most cogent observations.

Note: Clausewitz states that Napoleon's tactics were not revolutionary at all and that Napoleonic Warfare did not change anything greatly in military history. The technology of weaponry for the most part remained static, and new strategies weren't developed, but rather Napoleon refurbished old ones, mixing them into one grand strategy.

[edit] Synopsis

The book contains a wealth of historical examples used to illustrate its various concepts. Frederick II of Prussia (the Great) figures prominently for having made very efficient use of the limited forces at his disposal. Napoleon also is a central figure.

Among many strands of thought, three stand out as essential to Clausewitz' concept:

  • War must never be seen as a purpose to itself, but as a means of physically forcing one's will on an opponent ("War is not merely a political act, but also a real political instrument, a continuation of political commerce, a carrying out of the same by other means."[1]).
  • The military objectives in war that support one's political objectives fall into two broad types: "war to achieve limited aims" and war to "disarm” the enemy: “to render [him] politically helpless or militarily impotent."
  • The course of war will tend to favor the party employing more force and resources (a notion extended by Germany's leaders in World War One into "total war"—the pursuit of complete military victory regardless of the political consequences).

Military strategy is a national defence policy implemented by military organisations to pursue desired strategic goals.[1] Derived from the Greek strategos, strategy when it appeared in use during the 18th century[2], was seen in its narrow sense as the "art of the general"[3], 'the art of arrangement' of troops.[4] Military strategy deals with the planning and conduct of campaigns, the movement and disposition of forces, and the deception of the enemy. The father of modern strategic study, Carl von Clausewitz, defined military strategy as "the employment of battles to gain the end of war." Liddell Hart's definition put less emphasis on battles, defining strategy as "the art of distributing and applying military means to fulfil the ends of policy" Hence, both gave the pre-eminence to political aims over military goals, ensuring civilian control of the military.

Contents

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[edit] Fundamentals

"You must not fight too often with one enemy, or you will teach him all your art of war." Napoleon Bonaparte

Military strategy is the plan and execution of the contest between very large groups of armed adversaries. It involves each opponent's diplomatic, informational, military, and economic resources wielded against the other's resources to gain supremacy or reduce the opponent's will to fight. It is a principle tool to secure the national interest. A contemporary military strategy is developed via military science. [5] It is as old as society itself. It is a subdiscipline of warfare and of foreign policy. In comparison, grand strategy is that strategy of the largest of organizations which are currently the nation state, confederation, or international alliances. Military strategy has its origins before the Battle of the Ten Kings and will endure through the space age. It is larger in perspective than military tactics which is the disposition and maneuver of units on a particular sea or battlefield.[6]

[edit] Background

Military strategy in the 19th century was still viewed as one of a trivium of "arts" or "sciences" that govern the conduct of warfare; the others being tactics, the execution of plans and manœuvering of forces in battle, and logistics, the maintenance of an army. The view had prevailed since the Roman times, and the borderline between strategy and tactics at this time was blurred, and sometimes categorization of a decision is a matter of almost personal opinion. Carnot, during the French Revolutionary Wars thought it simply involved concentration of troops.[7]

The Battle of Siffin, illustration from a 19th century manuscript by Muhammad Rafi Bazil.

Strategy and tactics are closely related and exist on the same continuum.

 

 

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Price: 94.95

2002/03 Fleer Authentix Basketball Cards Box
Each sealed box contains 24 packs of 5 cards each in a 135 card base set including 35 Rookies. Each box will contain THREE Memorabilia cards or TWO Memorabilia cards and ONE Autograph card. Parallel sets: Balcony (#'d to 250) - Club Box (#'d to 100) - and Standing Room Only (#'d to 25). Inserts: Tip-Off Ticket box topper (VIP version > #'d to 15) - Draft Day Ticket box topper (VIP version > #'d to 15) - Courtside Classics (#'d to 750) - Hometown Heroes (#'d to 500) - AuthenTix (Autograph Ripped 1:586 - Autograph Un-Ripped > #'d to 25 - Jersey Ripped 1:17 - Jersey Un-Ripped > #'d to 50 - Jersey Game of the Week Ripped 1:53 - Jersey Game of the Week Un-Ripped > #'d to 50 - Autographed Jersey Ripped 1:960 - Autographed Jersey Un-Ripped > #'d to 1) - and Ticket for Four (Quadruple Memorabilia card > #'d to 200).
Price: 74.95

2002 Fleer Baseball Cards Box
24 Packs per pack and 24 Packs per box. NOT TO BE CONFUSED WITH TRADITION BASEBALL....This is Fleer Baseball. There will be an autographed or game-used card every 24 packs (1 per box). Base card set includes 40 Fleer Futures rookie cards - autographed - game-used inserts include: 10 Bonds Career Highlight cards (# to 25) - Classic Cuts Autographed - Game-Used cards (# to 50) - Classic Cuts-Game Used cards (1:28) and Classic Cuts-Autographed cards (1:207). There will be a Hooby Only Tiffany Collection 540 card base set parallel # to 200. There will be 6 additional insert sets including a non-game-used Bonds Career Highlinghts set and 3# insert sets.
Price: 27.95

2002 Fleer Box Score Baseball Cards Box
Contains 18 Packs of 7MLB Trading Cards and 1 supplemental Box. OK - here's a product with something different to talk about. Each box of 2002 Fleer Box Score Baseball contains 15 packs of cards plus ONE Supplemental Box. There are 5 different Supplemential Boxes and they contain...Version 1. Rookie Box containing 40 Rookie Cards # 151-190...Version 2. is the International Box with card # 191-230...Version 3. is the All-Star Box with card # 231-270...Version 4 is the Cooperstown box with card # 271-310 and version 5 is the Classic Miniatures box containing 40 miniature parallel cards of the base set. There will be parallel Supplemental Boxes in which ALL The Cards are game-used cards specific to theire Supplemental Box. For example all game-used rookies or game-used All-Star card (these parallel boxes will contain 10 cards per box). Every 12th box will contain one of the Hot Supplemental boxes! There are alson parallel supplemental boxes # 1-100. Every box will average 3 game-used - 2 in regular packes a 1 in supplemental box.
Price: 104.95

2002 Fleer Box Score Football Cards Box
Each sealed box contains 18 packs of 7 cards each in a 150 card base set including 35 Rookies (#'d to 1500). Each box contains FOUR Game Worn/Used Memorabilia cards and ONE Supplemental box (contains ONE of the four total Memorabilia cards in each full box). Parallel set: First Edition (#'d to 100). Inserts: Yard Markers 1:9 (Memorabilia version 1:18; Dual 1:108 - Dual Memorabilia version > #'d to 100) - Debuts (#'d to 2002) - Press Clippings 1:18 (Memorabilia version 1:14 - Patch version > #'d to 50) - Jersey Racks Memorabilia (Triple > #'d to 300 and Quad > #'d to 100) - and Supplemental box 1:box (30 extended base cards and ONE Memorabilia card in 4 different box versions: Rising Stars > cards #151-#180 - Quarterback Collection > cards #181-#210 - All-Pro Roster > #'d to 211-#240 - and Classics Miniatures > partial parallel of base set. Also look for HOT Supplemental boxes 1:12 that will contain 25 base cards and TEN Memorabilia cards!).
Price: 91.95

2003 Fleer Double Header Baseball Cards Box
Each sealed box contains 20 packs of 8 cards each (including 2 flip cards) in a 250 card base set. Each box will contain TWO Memorabilia cards. Parallel set: Alternate Ad. Inserts: Let's Play - Too! 1:5 - Twin Bill 1:10 (Single Memorabilia version > #'d to 125 and Dual Memorabilia version > #'d to 50) - Keystone Combinations 1:10 (Single Memorabilia version 1:25 and Dual Memorabilia version > #'d to 100) - Matinee Idols 1:20 (Memorabilia version 1:20) - Flip cards (Memorabilia version 1:25 - Memorabilia Gold version > #'d to 100 - and Autograph version > #'d to qty. produced).
Price: 54.95

2001/02 Fleer Exclusive Basketball Box
New Page 1 24 Packs of 5 National Basketball Association Trading Cards. Set size: 149 cards - including 100 basic cards - 20 Members Only and 29 Exclusive Rookie Patch cards (1:24) Inserts Letter Perfect: 25 cards - Insertion rate 1:8 Team Fleer: 1 cards - Insertion rate 1:96 Game Used & Autographed Inserted Game Exclusive: 20 cards - Numbered to 100 Game Exclusive Patch: 20 cards. Numbered to 25 Letter Perfect JV: 25 cards. Numbered 100 Letter Perfect Varsity: 25 cards. Numbered to 25 Team Fleer Jersey Card: 2 cards - Numbered to rookie year. Team Fleer Autogaphed Jersey: 2 cards. Numbered to 100 Team Fleer Jersey Pateh: 2 cards. Number to jersey number Team Fleer Dual Jersey Cards: 1 Card. Numbered to 500 (Note: Team Fleer Cards feature VINCE CARTER and LARRY BIRD) Vinsanity Collection: 5 cards. Insertion rate 1:70 Vinsanity Collection Autograph: 150 total cards.  
Price: 76.95

2001/02 Fleer EX Basketball Carsds Box
4 cards per pack and 24 packs per box.
Price: 87.95

2002 Fleer EX Baseball Cards Box
24 Packs of 4 MLB Trading cards 2002 Fleer EX Baseball features THREE memorabilia or autographed cards per box - Rookie cards with various production levels - Memorabilia cards of top players and the Base cards are printed on plastic! Base set is 100 cards with 30 nEXt (prospect) cards inserted 1:12 packs - 10 of these are # to 2 - 999 - 10 to 2 - 499 adn 10 to 1 - 999. There are Essential Credentials parallels in both game-used and non-game-used versions.
Price: 48.95

2001/02 Fleer Flair Basketball Cards Box
5 cards per packs and 20 packs per box. Set size: 12 cards - including 90 basic cards and 30 Class of '01 cards (numbered to 1500) INSERTS: Warming Up (warm-ups0: 20 cards Warming Up (dual swatch cards): 10 cards Courting Greatness (court): 20 cards Courting Greatness (ball/court): 20 cards. Insertion rate: Numbered to 250 Jersey Heights (Jersey): 20 cards Hot Numbers (jersey patches): 20 cards. Insertion rate: Numbered to 100 Sweet Shots (oversized autograph panel card): 10 cards Sweet Shots (oversized game-used card): 25 cards Note: Every hobby box will contain an oversize game-used cards. Some of these will be autographed as well. Overall odds for a game-used card is 1:6 packs
Price: 189.95

 

 

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