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War

War is the reciprocal and violent application of force between hostile political entities aimed at bringing about a desired political end-state via armed conflict. In his seminal work, On War, Carl Von Clausewitz calls war the "continuation of political intercourse, carried on with other means."[1] War is an interaction in which two or more militaries have a “struggle of wills”.[2] When qualified as a civil war, it is a dispute inherent to a given society, and its nature is in the conflict over modes of governance rather than sovereignty. War is not considered to be the same as mere occupation, murder or genocide because of the reciprocal nature of the violent struggle, and the organized nature of the units involved.

War is also a cultural entity, and its practice is not linked to any single type of political organisation or society. Rather, as discussed by John Keegan in his “History Of Warfare”, war is a universal phenomenon whose form and scope is defined by the society that wages it. [3] The conduct of war extends along a continuum, from the almost universal tribal warfare that began well before recorded human history, to wars between city states, nations, or empires. A group of combatants and their support is called an army on land, a navy at sea, and air force in the air. Wars may be prosecuted simultaneously in one or more different theatres. Within each theatre, there may be one or more consecutive military campaigns. A military campaign includes not only fighting but also intelligence, troop movements, supplies, propaganda, and other components. Continuous conflict is traditionally called a battle, although this terminology is not always fed to conflicts involving aircraft, missiles or bombs alone, in the absence of ground troops or naval forces.

War is not limited to the human species, as ants engage in massive intra-species conflicts which might be termed warfare. It is theorized that other species also engage in similar behavior, although this is not well documented. [4][5][6]

Contents

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[edit] History of war

Main article: History of war

Some believe war has always been with us; others stress the lack of clear evidence that war is not in our prehistoric past, and the fact that many peaceful, non-military societies have and still do exist.


Originally, war likely consisted of small-scale raiding. Since the rise of the state some 5000 years ago, military activity has occurred over much of the globe. The advent of gunpowder and the acceleration of technological advances led to modern warfare.

Since the close of the Vietnam War, the ideas expounded by the Prussian military theorist Carl von Clausewitz (1780-1831) have come to thoroughly permeate American military writing, doctrinal, theoretical, and historical. His book On War, first published (as Vom Kriege) in 1832, was adopted as a key text at the Naval War College in 1976, the Air War College in 1978, the Army War College in 1981. It has always been central at the U.S. Army's School for Advanced Military Studies at Leavenworth (founded in 1983). The U.S. Marine Corps's brilliant little philosophical field manual FMFM 1: Warfighting (1989) is essentially a distillation of On War, and the newer Marine Corps Doctrinal Publications (MCDPs, c.1997) are equally reflective of Clausewitz's basic concepts.*1

This is not the first time Clausewitz has been in fashion. Indeed, On War has been the bible of many thoughtful soldiers ever since Field Marshal Helmuth von Moltke attributed to its guidance his stunning victories in the wars of German unification (1864, 1866, 1870-71). Nor is it the first time that individual American soldiers and military thinkers have been attracted by his ideas: George Patton, Albert Wedemeyer, and—especially—Dwight Eisenhower were intensely interested in what he had to say.

It is, however, the first time that the American armed forces as institutions have turned to Clausewitz. While the philosopher had insisted that war was "simply the expression of politics by other means," the traditional attitude of American soldiers had been that "politics and strategy are radically and fundamentally things apart. Strategy begins where politics end. All that soldiers ask is that once the policy is settled, strategy and command shall be regarded as being in a sphere apart from politics."*2 The sudden acceptability of Clausewitz in the wake of Vietnam is not difficult to account for, for among the major military theorists only Clausewitz seriously struggled with the sort of dilemma that American military leaders faced in the aftermath of their defeat. Clearly, in what had come to be called in scathing terms a "political war," the political and military components of the American war effort had come unstuck. It ran against the grain of America's military men to criticize elected civilian leaders, but it was just as difficult to take the blame upon themselves. Clausewitz's analysis could not have been more relevant:

The more powerful and inspiring the motives for war,... the more closely will the military aims and the political objects of war coincide, and the more military and less political will war appear to be. On the other hand, the less intense the motives, the less will the military element's natural tendency to violence coincide with political directives. As a result, war will be driven further from its natural course, the political object will be more and more at variance with the aim of ideal war, and the conflict will seem increasingly political in character.*3

When people talk, as they often do, about harmful political influence on the management of war, they are not really saying what they mean. Their quarrel should be with the policy itself, not with its influence.

Vom Kriege (IPA[fɔm ˈkʁiːgə]) is a book on war and military strategy by Prussian general Carl von Clausewitz, written mostly after the Napoleonic wars, between 1816 and 1830, and published posthumously by his wife in 1832. It has been translated into English several times as On War. On War is actually an unfinished work; Clausewitz had set about revising his accumulated manuscripts in 1827, but did not live to finish the task. His wife eventually compiled all the work and the final two chapters Clausewitz never finished.

On War is one of the first books on modern military strategy. This is mainly due to Clausewitz' integration of politics and social and economic issues as some of the most important factors in deciding the outcomes of a war. It is one of the most important treatises on strategy ever written, and is prescribed at various military academies to this day.

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[edit] History

Carl von Clausewitz was a Prussian officer among those baffled by how the armies of the French Revolution and Napoleon had changed the nature of war through their ability to motivate the populace and thus unleash war on a greater scale than had previously been the case in Europe. Clausewitz was well educated and had a strong interest in art, science, and education, but he was a professional soldier who spent a considerable part of his life fighting against Napoleon. There is no doubt that the insights he gained from his experiences, combined with a solid grasp of European history, provided much of the raw material for the book. On War represents the compilation of his most cogent observations.

Note: Clausewitz states that Napoleon's tactics were not revolutionary at all and that Napoleonic Warfare did not change anything greatly in military history. The technology of weaponry for the most part remained static, and new strategies weren't developed, but rather Napoleon refurbished old ones, mixing them into one grand strategy.

[edit] Synopsis

The book contains a wealth of historical examples used to illustrate its various concepts. Frederick II of Prussia (the Great) figures prominently for having made very efficient use of the limited forces at his disposal. Napoleon also is a central figure.

Among many strands of thought, three stand out as essential to Clausewitz' concept:

  • War must never be seen as a purpose to itself, but as a means of physically forcing one's will on an opponent ("War is not merely a political act, but also a real political instrument, a continuation of political commerce, a carrying out of the same by other means."[1]).
  • The military objectives in war that support one's political objectives fall into two broad types: "war to achieve limited aims" and war to "disarm” the enemy: “to render [him] politically helpless or militarily impotent."
  • The course of war will tend to favor the party employing more force and resources (a notion extended by Germany's leaders in World War One into "total war"—the pursuit of complete military victory regardless of the political consequences).

Military strategy is a national defence policy implemented by military organisations to pursue desired strategic goals.[1] Derived from the Greek strategos, strategy when it appeared in use during the 18th century[2], was seen in its narrow sense as the "art of the general"[3], 'the art of arrangement' of troops.[4] Military strategy deals with the planning and conduct of campaigns, the movement and disposition of forces, and the deception of the enemy. The father of modern strategic study, Carl von Clausewitz, defined military strategy as "the employment of battles to gain the end of war." Liddell Hart's definition put less emphasis on battles, defining strategy as "the art of distributing and applying military means to fulfil the ends of policy" Hence, both gave the pre-eminence to political aims over military goals, ensuring civilian control of the military.

Contents

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[edit] Fundamentals

"You must not fight too often with one enemy, or you will teach him all your art of war." Napoleon Bonaparte

Military strategy is the plan and execution of the contest between very large groups of armed adversaries. It involves each opponent's diplomatic, informational, military, and economic resources wielded against the other's resources to gain supremacy or reduce the opponent's will to fight. It is a principle tool to secure the national interest. A contemporary military strategy is developed via military science. [5] It is as old as society itself. It is a subdiscipline of warfare and of foreign policy. In comparison, grand strategy is that strategy of the largest of organizations which are currently the nation state, confederation, or international alliances. Military strategy has its origins before the Battle of the Ten Kings and will endure through the space age. It is larger in perspective than military tactics which is the disposition and maneuver of units on a particular sea or battlefield.[6]

[edit] Background

Military strategy in the 19th century was still viewed as one of a trivium of "arts" or "sciences" that govern the conduct of warfare; the others being tactics, the execution of plans and manœuvering of forces in battle, and logistics, the maintenance of an army. The view had prevailed since the Roman times, and the borderline between strategy and tactics at this time was blurred, and sometimes categorization of a decision is a matter of almost personal opinion. Carnot, during the French Revolutionary Wars thought it simply involved concentration of troops.[7]

The Battle of Siffin, illustration from a 19th century manuscript by Muhammad Rafi Bazil.

Strategy and tactics are closely related and exist on the same continuum.

 

 

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Price: 64.95

2003 Fleer Mystique Baseball Box
Look for eleven (11) serially numbered cards per box... Two (2) game-worn cards numbered no higher than 350...plus dual - triple and patch versions ! Three (3) of the 50 top true rookie cards in Rookie Unveiling numbered to just 999 each... including the second overall pick in the 2003 MLB Amateur draft Ricky Weeks ! Five (5) serially numbered inserts (some as low as 3) ! Three (3) serially numbered parallels including at least two (2) rookies ! Serially numbered AUTOGRAPHS of major league rookies and stars numbered no higher than 200 and found every six (6) boxes ! Look for Autographs of DONTRELLE WILLIS - RICKY WEEKS - and BRANDON WEBB ! Serially numbered DUAL AUTOGRAPH cards numbered no higher than 50 ! Autographs DO NOT replace a game-worn card ! MYSTERY PACKS seeded one (1) per box ! Each Mystery Pack includes a Rare Finds game-worn and/or autograph card - along with two (2) serially numbered Draft Day Discovery Blue Parallel cards... all exclusively found in Mystery Packs ! Mystery Packs look like a regular pack on the outside - but inside... the mysterious Rare Find card is wrapped in a black - opaque wrapper ! Each Rare Find card features either a single - dual - triple swatch and/or autograph ! Each card is serially numbered no higher than 350 ! Blaster Boxes Now Available! 6 Packs Per Blaster Box 5 Cards per pack
Price: 94.99

2003/04 Fleer Mystique Basketball Box
2003-04 Fleer Mystique Basketball sealed box contains 20 packs of 5 cards each in a 120 card base set including 40 Draft Day Discovery Rookies (#'d to 999). Each box will contain THREE Rookie cards and ONE Mystery Pack (containing ONE Memorabilia - Autograph - or Memorabilia/Autograph cards as well as TWO Rookie parallel cards (#'d to 600). Inserts: Awe Pairs (#'d to 500; Gold > #'d to 02/03 team win total - Dual Memorabilia > #'d to 300 - and Gold Dual Memorabilia > #'d to 30) - Shining Stars (#'d to 500; Gold > #'d to 02/03 3-pointers made - and Jersey Patch > #'d to 300 or 50) - Secret Weapons (#'d to 500; Gold > #'d to jersey number) - Skyview (#'d to 100; Gold > #'d to most points in one game - Memorabilia > #'d to 150 - and Gold Memorabilia > #'d to 15) - Rare Finds (#'d to 500) - Autographs (Ink Appeal > #'d to qty. signed and Ink Appeal parallel > #'d to jersey number) - and Mystery Pack 1:box (Rare Finds Memorabilia: Single > #'d to 300 - Single Gold > #'d to 30 - Dual > #'d to 250 - Dual Gold > #'d to 25 - Triple > #'d to 150 - Triple Gold > #'d to 15 - Rare Finds Autographs > #'d to 50 - and Rare Finds Memorabilia/Autograph > #'d to 10 - and Rookie Unveiling Blue paralle1 2:1 > #'d to 600). ***Pictures to be added when available.
Price: 71.95

2003 Fleer Mystique Football Box
Look for eleven (11) serially numbered cards per box... Two (2) game-worn cards numbered no higher than 350...plus dual - triple and patch versions ! Three (3) of the 50 NFL?s top rookies in Draft Day Discovery numbered to just 999 each ! Three (3) serially numbered inserts (some as low as 6) ! Three (3) serially numbered parallels including at least two (2) rookies ! Serially numbered AUTOGRAPHS of the NFL?s best numbered no higher than 150 and found every six (6) boxes ! Autographs DO NOT replace a game-worn card ! Look for Rare Finds game-worn and/or autograph cards... covered with opaque covering and found either in single - dual - triple swatch and/or autographed format ! Each level is serially numbered ! Look for dynamic foil board card stock design ! MYSTERY PACKS...Rare Finds game-worn and/or autograph cards - along with two (2) serially numbered Draft Day Discovery Blue Parallel cards are ONLY found in Mystery Packs... seeded one per box ! Five (5) insert programs numbered no higher than 500 found an average of three (3) per box ! Gold parallels of insert sets numbered to specific statistics such as team win total for 2002 - career touchdowns - uniform number and more ! Gold Parallel of the basic set numbered to 150 for veterans and 50 for rookies found one per box !
Price: 89.95

2004 Fleer America's National Pastime Baseball Box
Each 2004 Fleer America's National Pastime Baseball Trading Card sealed box contains 10 packs of 5 cards each in a 90 card base set including 30 Rookies (#'d to 699). Each 2004 Fleer America's National Pastime Baseball box will contain THREE Autograph cards or TWO Autograph cards and ONE Memorabilia card. Inserts: Autographs 1:5 (Signs of the Future: Gold - Red > #'d from 55 to 133 - White > #'d from 15 to 32 - and Blue > #'d to debut year; Signature Swings: Gold - Red > #'d from 22 to 109 - White > #'d best HR season total - Blue Auto/Bat > #'d from 5 to 44 - and Masterpiece Auto/Bat > #'d to 1; and National Treasures: Red - White > #'d from 2 to 31 - Blue > #'d to significant year - and Masterpiece > #'d to 1) and Memorabilia cards (History in the Making: Gold Patch > #'d from 20 to 50 - Dual > #'d to 5 - and Masterpiece > #'d to 1; American Game: Gold Patch > #'d to 30 - Single/Dual/Autographs > #'d to 31 or less - and Masterpiece > #'d to 1; and 1959 Fleer Ted Williams reprint w/ Game Used Bat piece > #'d to 9).
Price: 129.95

2004 Fleer Patchworks Baseball Box
Each 2004 Fleer Patchworks Baseball sealed box contains 18 packs of 5 cards each in a 120 card base set including 30 Rookies (#'d to 799). Each 2004 Fleer Patchworks Baseball box will contain THREE Memorabilia cards including ONE Jersey Patch cards (#'d to 200 or less). Parallel set: Star Ruby (#'d to 50). Inserts: Stitches In Time (Jersey > #'d to 350 and Jersey Patch > #'d to 150) - National Patchtime (Jersey > #'d to 350 - Dual Color > #'d to 200 - and Jersey Patch > #'d to 100) - Licensed Apparel (Jersey > #'d to 300 - Team Name > #'d to 150 - Jersey Number > #'d to 100 - Nameplate > #'d to 50 - Jersey Tags > #'d to 10 - and MLB Logo > #'d to 1) - By the Numbers (Jersey 1:500 and Jersey Patch > #'d to 100) - and Patchworks (Single color > #'d to 200 - Dual Color > #'d to 100 - and Multi Color > #'d to 50) and Autoworks Autographs 1:54 (Level 1 Black > #'d to qty. produced - Level 2 Blue > #'d to 100 - and Level 3 Red Jersey Patch > #'d to 10).
Price: 59.95

2003/04 Fleer Patchworks Basketball Box
Each 2003-04 Fleer Patchworks Basketball sealed box contains 18 packs of 5 cards each in a 120 card base set including 30 Rookies (#'d to 799). Each 2003-04 Fleer Patchworks Basketball box contains at least ONE Rookie card and THREE Memorabilia cards (at least ONE Jersey Patch cards > #'d to 250 or less). Parallel set: Star Ruby (#'d to 50). Inserts: Courting Greatness 1:12 (Jersey > #'d to 350 and Jersey Patch . #'d to 150) - Numbers Game 1:24 - By the Numbers (Jersey 1:300 and Jersey Patch > #'d to 100) - Patchworks (Single color > #'d to 250 - Dual color > #'d to 100 - and Multi color > #'d to 50) - Licensed Apparel (Jersey > #'d to 300 - Team Name > #'d to 150 - Number > #'d to 100 - Nameplate > #'d to 50 - Jersey tags > #'d to 10 - and NBA Logo > #'d to 1) - National Pastime 1:150 (#'d to 250) - National Patchtime (NBA Jersey > #'d to 350 - USA Jersey > #'d to 200 - NBA Jersey Patch > #'d to 100 - USA Jersey Patch > #'d to 75 - and NBA/USA Jersey > #'d to 25) - and Vince Cater Autograph/Memorabilia cards (Jersey > #'d to qty. produced - Jersey Patch > #'d to 100 - Nameplate > #'d to 15 - and Logo Patch > #'d to 1).
Price: 74.99

2003 Fleer PatchWorks Baseball Box
Basic Card Collect all 90 of the big league stars that made the cut in Patchworks! Rookie These are 25 players that are bound to make an impact on Major League Baseball Star Ruby Are you up for a challenge? See if you're able to collect all 115 Star Ruby Parallels numbered to just 100. National Pastime While some people argue that players from the ?old days? were the best ever - we can make convincing arguments that some of today?s players are reaching for the status of greatness. The 25 players in National Pastime are prime examples of the best of the best in today?s pro ranks and one day their careers will be seen as the most prolific ever. National Patchtime - trim National Patchtime gives collectors exactly what they are looking for - unique serially numbered memorabilia cards of the best players in today?s game. The first level features the piping from authentic game-worn jerseys and is limited to just 200. National Patchtime - team name National Patchtime gives collectors exactly what they are looking for - unique serially numbered memorabilia cards of the best players in today?s game. The second level uses the team name from the front of game-worn jerseys to create a new way to look at patch cards. These cards are limited to just 100 of each player. National Patchtime - number National Patchtime gives collectors exactly what they are looking for - unique serially numbered memorabilia cards of the best players in today?s game. The third level utilizes the uniform number from authentic game-worn jerseys and is limited to just 75. National Patchtime - nameplate National Patchtime gives collectors exactly what they are looking for - unique serially numbered memorabilia cards of the best players in today?s game. The fourth level of National Patchtime takes the players? names right from the back of their uniforms. Each card is limited to just 50. National Patchtime - commemorative National Patchtime gives collectors exactly what they are looking for - unique serially numbered memorabilia cards of the best players in today?s game. The fifth level of National Patchtime goes one step further by utilizing commemorative and team logo patches from the sleeves of the game-worn jerseys. Each card is serially numbered to 25. National Patchtime - MLB logo National Patchtime gives collectors exactly what they are looking for - unique serially numbered memorabilia cards of the best players in today?s game. The sixth and last level is in a league of its own as we take the MLB logo from each game-worn uniform to make the ultimate in of patch cards?a 1 of 1. Numbers Game Some people say the uniform makes the man - but in baseball it is the uniform number that does it. Each player has a reason on why they have the uniform number they wear and like most superstitions - these players never want to change their uni number. Numbers Game takes a look at some of the reasons why the top stars where the numbers that they have. Numbers Game - jersey Numbers Game ? jersey memorabilia cards is a step above most jersey cards by utilizing a die cut in the shape of the specific uniform numbers the players wear to showcase the game-worn jersey swatch. The cool design combined with the uniqueness of each card makes it a grand slam. Numbers Game - patch As a collector - you may have been transfixed by the cool design and feel of the Numbers Game ? jersey cards but it will be the patch version that will blow you away. Each card contains a piece of patch from an authentic game-worn jersey and is numbered to just 300. Licensed Apparel - jersey Looking for the real deal? The Licensed Apparel jersey cards offer collectors a chance to won a memorabilia card from some of their favorite players. Sequentially numbered to just 500 ensures that these cards are limited. Licensed Apparel - patch This patch parallel of the Licensed Apparel memorabilia program is serially numbered to 300 each and offers the same great player selection. Sometimes the sequel is better than the original. Past - Present - Future If there is one thing that baseball fans love to do - it is compare and contrast players from today to those of the past. Past - Present - Future looks at the various links between the ages. Patch - Present - Future single A slight change of the name and viola - a parallel of the Past - Present - Future insert?but the parallel features a patch from a game-worn jersey numbered to just 200. Patch - Present - Future dual A dual swatch version of Past - Present - Future is extra nice. Plus there are only 100 serially numbered of each card. Patchworks The Patchworks memorabilia card program offers collectors three levels of fun. The first level featured here is a single color patch swatch from a game-worn jersey numbered to just 250. Patchworks - dual color Second level of Patchworks gives collectors a chance to own a real two colored swatch card numbered to just 100. Patchworks - multi-color The third level of Patchworks goes beyond the rest with a 3 or more colored patch swatch creating a truly unique collectible experience. These cards are serially numbered to 50. Diamond Ink Diamond Ink brings autographs of three of today?s best players in to the hands of collectors. Look for the various tiers of autographs and see which you have.
Price: 99.95

2003/04 Fleer Platinum Basketball Box
Each 2003-04 Fleer Platinum Basketball sealed box contains 22 packs (18 7-card hobby packs and 4 20-card jumbo packs) in a 200 card base set including 30 Platinum Pick Rookies (10 hobby pack exclusive > #'d to 750 and 10 jumbo pack exclusive > #'d to 500). 2003-04 Fleer Platinum Basketball box will contain TWO Memorabilia cards (one in hobby pack and one in jumbo pack) and ONE Mini-Hummer w/ trading card. Parallel set: Platinum Finish (#'d to 100). Inserts: Big Signs 1:9 (Autograph > #'d to 50) - NBA Scouting Report (#'d to 400; Memorabilia > #'d to 250) - Platinum Portraits 1:18 (Jersey 1:48 and Jersey Patch > #'d to 100) - Showdown Series 1:288 - Locker Room Memorabilia (Single 1:24 - Dual > #'d to 50) - and JUMBO PACK ONLY Jersey Patch Name Plates (Single 1:4 and Dual > #'d to 25).
Price: 59.99

2002/03 Fleer Platinum Basketball Box
Each sealed box contains 19 packs (Fourteen 7-card Hobby - Four 20-card Jumbo - and One 30-card Rack) in a 200 card base set including 20 Unsung Heroes - 10 Rookies - 10 'Hobby pack Only' Rookies (#'d to 750) - 10 'Jumbo pack only Rookies (#'d to 350) - and 10 'Rack pack Only' Rookies (#'d to 250). Each box will contain TWO Memorabilia cards. Parallel set: Platinum Finish (#'d to 100). Inserts: Guts and Glory 1:4 - Platinum Portraits 1:14 (Jersey version 1:21 and Jersey Patch version > #'d to 100) - Inside the Playbook (#'d to 400; Memorabilia version > #'d to 250) - Nameplates (Game Worn Jersey Patch cards 1:8 Jumbo packs) - Freshman Fabric (Memorabilia > 1:2 Rack packs) - and Vince Carter's All-Stars (Dual Memorabilia cards > #'d to 250). ***Pictures to be added when available.
Price: 59.95

2004 Fleer Platinum Baseball Box
2004 Fleer Platinum Baseball sealed box contains 22 packs (18 7-card hobby packs and 4 20-card jumbo packs) in a 194 card base set including 8 SP hobby 1:3 and 8 SP jumbo 1:1. Each 2004 Fleer Platinum Baseball box will contain TWO Memorabilia cards. Parallel set: Platinum Finish 1:24 (#'d to 100). Inserts: Big Signs 1:9 (Autographs > #'d to 50) - MLB Scouting Report (#'d to 400; Memorabilia > #'d to 250) - Platinum Portraits 1:18 (Jersey 1:48 and Jersey Patch > #'d to 100) - Clubhouse Memorabilia 1:24 (Dual > #'d to 50) - Classic Combinations 1:108 - and JUMBO ONLY Name Plates Memorabilia 1:4.
Price: 44.95

 

 

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